THE ENGLISH PARTS OF SPEECH – ONE WAY OF LOOKING AT THEM

Presented below is a quick, handy, and comprehensive reference guide to the English parts of speech.  The guide is addressed to substitute teachers, returning teachers, and part-time tutors, all needing to quickly refresh their knowledge of this subject matter.   It’s easy to remember the names of the parts of speech by using the following mnemonic devices: IVAN CAPP (interjections, verbs, adjectives, nouns, conjunctions, adverbs, prepositions, and pronouns); and/or VIC NAPPA.  Enjoy the guide, and happy teaching!

NOUNS

 

Definition/Use: names of persons, places, things, animals, actions, quality, and ideas/concepts.

Examples:  Georges Bizet, San Juan, shoe, lion, departure, endurance, science.

 Noun Classifications/Forms:

 

 (1) Proper (always begins with a capital letter) – “James Fennimore Cooper wrote The Deerslayer.”

 (2) Common (not capitalized, unless the beginning word of a sentence) – “The author was J.D. Salinger.”   

 (3) Concrete (nouns perceived by the five senses – see, hear, smell, touch, or taste) – “Your new jazz compact disk looks and sounds great.”     

 (4) Abstract (nouns not perceived by the five senses, nor measurable) – “His imagination is almost non-existent.”

 (5) Collective (a group of things or people) – “Lady Gaga lost her luggage at the airport.”

 (6) Countable (nouns that can be either singular or plural in form) – “Silver coins and gold ingots went way up in value.”    

 (7) Non-Countable (nouns that cannot be plural in form, no “s” ending) -“All their furniture was made in Taiwan.”  

 (8) Gerunds (infinite verbs ending in “ing”, but functioning as nouns) -“ Knitting is her favorite pastime.”  

 (9) Compound (a noun made up of two or more words) – “We just remodeled our bedrooms and bathrooms.”

 PRONOUNS

 

Definition/Use:  a part of speech that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.  The noun being replaced by the pronoun is called the “antecedent”.

Examples:  its, he, she, you, their, her, him.

Pronouns Classifications/Forms:

 (1)   Subject Personal (indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence)-   “The culprit was he.” 

 (2)   Object Personal (indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb or preposition) – “The park ranger gave us two hikers a map of Yosemite National Park.”      

 (3)   Possessive (show’s possession and/or ownership, not used with an apostrophe). “The tiger is licking its paws.”

 (4)   Indefinite (refers to an identifiable, but not a specific person or thing) -”She donated some antiques to charity.”  

 (5)   Interrogative (a pronoun used to introduce or to ask a question) – “Who wrote the novel Moby Dick?” 

 (6)   Demonstrative (pronouns pointing to and identifying a noun or pronoun) – “This cake looks fresh.”   

 (7)   Reflexive (pronouns ending in “self” or “selves” and performing actions on or for themselves) -“She made a pastrami on rye for herself.”  

 (8)   Intensive (pronouns identical in form (ending in “self) to reflexive pronouns appearing above, but used to emphasize their antecedents) – “She made a pastrami on rye for the Vice-President himself.”  

 (9)   Relative (pronouns introducing a relative clause and referencing an antecedent) – “The swimmer, whom we admired, won a silver medal.”

 (10)  Reciprocal (pronouns used when each of two or more subjects are acting/relating each way to one another) – “Upon landing, the astronauts congratulated one another.” 

 (11)  Negative (pronouns indicating the non-existence of people and things, to replace a noun phrase and to make it negative) – “Nobody won the Michigan State lottery.”

ADJECTIVES

 

Definition/Use:  words that describe nouns or pronouns.

Examples:  purple, several, round, these, Shakespearean, broken, tenth, seven, easiest. 

Adjective Classifications/Forms:

 (1)   Descriptive (also called an “attributive” adjective, can be classified into two sub types – simple descriptive and compound descriptive).

 (1a)  Simple Descriptive (single or one word describing a noun) – “A huge tidal wave destroyed the marina.” 

 (1b)  Compound Descriptive (two adjectives describing the noun) – “Your bluish-green bath tiles look real ritzy.” 

 (2)  Determiners (precede and modify nouns, used to express information about a noun such as definiteness, proximity, relationship, and quantity, sub-categories include articles, quantifiers, demonstratives, numbers, interrogatives, and possessives). 

 (2a)  Articles (the definite article is “the” and the two indefinite articles are “a” and “an”) -“An American diplomat was arrested in Cairo.”  “Please put a pear in the brown bag.”

 (2b)  Quantifiers (answers questions how much & how many in general terms) – “Many prisoners escaped.” 

 (2c)  Numbers (answers questions how much & how many in specific terms)-“Eighty percent of my class failed physics.”

 (2d)  Demonstrative (used to indicate which person or thing is meant) – “Give me all those Cuban cigars!”

 (2e)  Possessive (when a possessive pronoun is used to modify the noun following it to show possession, it functions as an adjective)- “That’s her file, but his desk.”

 (2f)  Interrogative (another form of possessive pronoun, but asks for more specific identification of a person or thing) – “Whose cell phone is ringing?”

 (3)   Relative (a form of possessive pronoun modifying names of persons and things)-“Which tie and jacket are you going to wear tonight?”  

 (4)   Comparative (used to compare the differences between two nouns or a collective noun) – “Nike is more well-known in Canada than Nestles.”

 (5)   Superlative (used to state something of the highest or the lowest degree) – “The fastest sport on foot is lacrosse.”

 (6)    Proper (an adjective requiring capitalization, normally denoting nationality) – “The ladies prefer Irish coffee.”

 (7)   Eponymous (a proper adjective derived from a person’s name) – “I study Euclidean geometry and Boolean algebra.”

 (8)  Appositives (multiple adjectives used to emphasize noun/ pronoun descriptions, by being placed after them and then set off by commas) – “Their son, smart, arrogant, and wealthy, is the city’s mayor.”

 (9)  Participles (verbs used as adjectives, formed from a verb’s present or past participle) – “The time-consuming bar examination wreaked havoc on my nerves.” 

VERBS

 

Definition/Use: a word or phrase expressing an action or a state of being.       

Examples: write, catch, imagine, hear, learn, drive, was, dive, shoot, multiply, criticize, open.

Verb Classifications/Forms:

 

(1)   Main (also called a “lexical” verb, expresses the activity, event, or feeling described in the sentence, its two sub-categories are action verbs and linking verbs).  

(2)   Action (also called a “dynamic” verb, specifies action) – “Dell produces and sells the fastest desk top computers in the world.”

(2a)  Transitive (an action verb taking a direct object – its three sub-types are mono transitive, di transitive, and complex transitive). “George Gershwin composed The Cuban Overture.””

(2a1) Mono Transitive (a transitive verb taking only a single direct object) – “Madame Curie discovered radium.”

(2a2) Di Transitive (a transitive verb taking a direct and an indirect object) – “Queen Isabella gave Columbus three ships.”

(2a3)  Complex Transitive (a transitive verb taking a direct object plus an object complement) – “They chose Otto von Bismarck Chancellor.”

(2a4)  Intransitive (an action verb not taking a direct object) – “At midday, seals lie in the sun.”

(3)     Linking (also called a “copular” verb, doesn’t express an action, but implies a state of being and includes all forms of the verb “to be”) -“He was and still is a selfish person.”

(4)     Helping (also called an “auxiliary” verb, sub-categories are modal & semi-modal, combined with the main verb to create a complete verb) – “You should consider hiring a tutor.”  

(4a)   Modal (a helping verb expressing ability, inclination, or obligation)-“Those teenagers ought to stop smoking.”

(4b)   Semi-Modal (a verb partly like a modal and partly like a “lexical” or full verb) – “We used to smoke pot.” 

(5)    Regular (a verb forming its past tense and past participle by adding “d”, “ed”, and  sometimes “t” to the base form)- “Marcus Crassus captured and then executed Spartacus.”

(6)     Irregular (a verb that doesn’t form its past tense and past participle by adding “d” or “ed”)- “We flew to Orlando.”

(7)     Infinite (a verb whose base form is preceded by “to”) – “I’m here to inquire about your job vacancy.”

(8)     Phrasal (a verb plus a preposition or adverb that changes the meaning to make a new verb) – “His bill adds up to two hundred shekels.”

(9)     Stative (also called a “state” verb, describes a state and feeling, as opposed to an action verb) – “They know about and understand your predicament.”

ADVERBS

Definition/Use:  a word which describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective, adverb, or phrase, usually ending in “ly”, and used to indicate manner, time, place, cause or degree.

Examples:  frequently, loudly, in order to, nowhere, now, soon, underground, surely.

Adverb Classifications/Forms:

(1)  Time (describes when something happens) -“Phineas T. Bluster recently discovered ants in his pants.”  

(2) Place (answers the question where) – “John Dillinger was shot inside the mall next to the drugstore.”

(3) Degree (answers questions how much and up to what extent) – “Nebuchadnezzar was extremely wicked.” 

(4) Purpose (answers the question why something happens) – “Tiny Tim detoured, in order to avoid the traffic jam.”

(5) Manner (modifies the verb to describe how the action was done) – “Bonnie and Clyde quickly and quietly escaped.”

(6)  Assertive (telling the speaker’s belief or disbelief in a statement) – “I’m certain that China rules North Korea.”

(7) Frequency (answers the questions how long, how often) -“Her bank publishes its financial reports daily and monthly.”

(8) Conjunctive (an adverb indicating the relationship in meaning between two independent clauses) – “Our attorney didn’t file an injunction; consequently, he lost our zoning case.”

(9) Interrogative (an adverb used to ask a question) – “How did the ancient Aztecs build their pyramid-shaped temples?”  

(10) Comparative (an adverb comparing the difference in amount, quality, and/or degree between two things) – “Usain Bolt runs much faster than his closest competitor.”

(11) Superlative (an adverb expressing something of the highest or lowest degree) – Usain Bolt ran the fastest mile.”

CONJUNCTIONS

 

Definition/Use:  a part of speech (sometimes called a “function word”) used to connect words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. 

Examples:  but, for, not only, since, although, yet, so. 

Conjunction Classifications/Forms:

 

(1)  Coordinating (connects two or more independent clauses, the mnemonic device used is FANBOYS – for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so) – “Sherlock Holmes loved tea, but he hated crumpets.” 

(2)  Subordinating (joins together a dependent clause and an independent clause) – “Although Joe Louis was a famous heavyweight boxer, he loathed violence.”  

(3) Correlative (also called a “paired” conjunction, and always used in pairs to link equivalent sentence elements) – “Rasputin was neither rich nor poor.”

PREPOSITIONS

 

Definition/Use:  a word used before (pre-positioned) a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, connecting it to another word, and indicating location, direction, manner, movement, and time.

Examples: at, in, by, across, after, against, underneath, between, beyond, on, through, with.

Preposition Classifications/Forms:

(1) Time (indicating time)-“The community pool is closed until further notice.”

(2) Location (indicates location) – “We took the subway under the Oakland Bay Bridge.”    

(3) Manner (indicates manner) – “He walks like Charlie Chaplin.”

 (4) Direction (indicates direction) – “The track team jogged along the banks of the Susquehanna River.” 

 (5) Movement (indicates movement) – “Boeing’s computer staff moved across the street.”

INTERJECTIONS

 

Definition/Use: a part of speech, capable of standing alone, used to express surprise, emotion, exclamation, or attitude, followed by an exclamation point or a comma. 

Examples:  Ah,  Huh,  Phooey,  Oh,  Yea,  Bah,  Whew,  Wow,  Alas,  Gee,  Golly.

Interjection Classifications/Forms:

(1) Strong (also referred to as “forceful” interjections, set off by exclamation points) – “Ouch!  That hurts!”

(2) Weak (also referred to as “mild” interjections, set off by commas, not by exclamation points) – “Gosh, I’m sorry!”

 

 

CONCLUSIONS

English vocabulary words can be very versatile.  For example, the word “oil” can be used in noun, verb, adjective, and adverb forms.   “Oil has caused many world conflicts.”  “Mario Andretti oiled his racing car.” “Warren Buffett bought more oil stock.”  “The iguana’s belly felt oily.”  Advantages of learning the parts of speech are gaining a better understanding of their grammatical interrelationships, strengthening teaching self-confidence in the actual classroom setting, and improving writing skills. 

Because of the absence of a central authority regulating English use or grammar, there is no one correct way to sub-categorize the parts of speech.  Additionally, there are other long-standing grammatical disagreements still remaining to be resolved.  A few noteworthy examples are correct comma usage, and whether determiners should be unbundled from adjectives and made an independent speech part heading.  And interestingly, an internet website indicated that some academicians had defrocked the pronoun, by eliminating it as an independent speech part and sub-categorizing it under the noun.  Moreover, in its description of the English parts of speech, another educational website omitted any reference whatsoever to the interjection.  Are there anymore sacred cows out there in “speech part land” awaiting full or near extinction at the “altar?”  If so, will a universally accepted English language authority triumphantly appear and come to their rescue?  Place your bets!

“COACHING” – A DIFFERENT CONNOTATION AND APPLICATION TODAY

Historically, coaching has always been associated with the sports world.  Today, however, coaching has taken on a new meaning.  No longer restricted to sports, coaches are privately being hired for a variety of personal reasons.  There are dating coaches, divorce coaches, writing coaches, voice coaches, lawyer coaches, executive coaches, and the list goes on.           

How does private coaching differ from athletic coaching? In private coaching, the client sets the agenda & is considered “king.”  Furthermore, the client/coach relationship takes the form of an “alliance” or partnership to meet the client’s needs.  In this “alliance”, the partners interact on a “level playing field” – an authoritative relationship doesn’t exist. Ideally, the coach guides, supports, and empowers the client to recognize and then solve his/her problem(s) – poor motivation, low self-esteem, unsatisfactory job performance, etc.  In other words, the coach doesn’t provide answers or solve the client’s problem(s).  How does this work?  Basically, the coach uses skillful powerful, creative, and opening questioning techniques, to stimulate the client’s thought processes and to break away from his/her problem “mindsets.”  If these questioning techniques are used effectively, the client recognizes the problem(s), and then sets up appropriate personal goals, satisfactorily achieving them within realistic set time frames.   

There are also other differences.  Whereas athletic coaching is done face-to-face, private coaching is also done over the phone, including long distance and by email.  Athletic coaches are normally paid straight salaries. However, private coaches often negotiate their own fees.  In that regard, top-class business and/or executive coaches often negotiate their own remunerations, based on fixed percentages of their clients’ future profit margins.  Consequently, compared to other private coaching areas, corporate coaching is the most lucrative, financially.

How does private coaching differ from psychotherapy, mentoring, counseling, consulting, & tutoring?  Unlike professional therapists, teachers, & counselors, private coaches are not government regulated – they don’t require licenses to practice their profession.  Moreover, private coaches don’t delve into clients’ past lives trying to uncover reasons for present problems.  Some other notable differences, broken down by related disciplines, are as follows:   

Psychotherapy – therapists normally work with poorly motivated and low self-esteem clients.  In contrast, private coaches, especially, at the corporate level, work with high driving, functioning clients, who strive for more excellence. 

Mentoring – mentors are normally older, wiser, with expertise in one area. Mentoring can also be tutoring someone. Basically, mentors bestow their knowledge to their clients or students. There are many tutors who have private tuition centers and conduct classes there. For example you can go to an A level chemistry tuition if you need tutoring in chemistry or you can go several other tutors who are specialized in the area you want to gain more knowledge.   

Counseling – similar to a therapist/client relationship, there is no “alliance.”   Instead, the counseling relationship is more hierarchical.  The counselor is “boss”, and normally solves the client’s problem(s).

Consulting – consultants are hired for their fields of expertise to solve their clients’ specific problems.  So in this relationship there is no “level playing field”, and the consultant, not the client, solves the client’s problem(s).

Tutoring – again, there is no “level playing field” – the tutor is “boss.”  The client depends on the tutor to solve his/her problem(s).    

What are some of the key qualifications needed for successful private coaching?  A background in behavior modification psychology (including NLP) is one important tool.  To specialize in business and/or executive coaching, an aspiring coach also needs to know the following:  the fundamentals of business management; how corporate organizations develop and function; and the principles of risk and crisis/conflict management.  Moreover, having an MBA degree, supplemented by management experience in such areas as marketing, corporation finance, human resources, and/or telecommunications, provide a further “competitive edge.”  

Assuming an aspiring private coach’s CV lists the above qualifications, his/her glass is only half full.  Just as crucial is his/her mastery over certain key interpersonal skills. In that regard, recent studies have identified five critical interpersonal skills needed for successful private coaching. The first is the ability to develop client rapport.  Without client rapport, a partnership or “alliance” can’t be crafted.  Here, having a condescending nature is an important asset. Second, a coach needs to have deep listening abilities at multiple levels.  Hearing what the client is not saying is just as important as hearing what the client is saying.  Third, a coach needs powerful, creative, and opening questioning skills to effectively guide the client to solve his/her own problem(s).  Coming into play here is the coach’s ability to adroitly manage the conversation, and not the client.  Fourth, a coach needs to know how to implement open and objective feedback skills to maintain an effective coach/client “alliance.”  Praising the client as much as possible strengthens implementation of the feedback process.  And fifth, a keen sense of intuition is needed to ensure that the client is staying on track and exerting the maximum effort required to achieve his/her goal(s).  Here, a coach must be careful to trust his/her intuition, but not to overly rely on it.

What’s today’s job market picture look like for private coaches?  Unfortunately, it’s pretty bleak!  Although the supply side is growing at an exponential rate, the demand remains stagnant.  Some of the major factors causing this supply/demand imbalance are as follows: little, if any, governmental regulation (no coaching license requirements); a proliferation of  coaching courses and seminars, mostly short-term in length and without realistic enrollment requirements; high global unemployment rates; and the related scarcity of jobs for recent college graduates.  

In conclusion, an aspiring private coach needs three critical tools to be effective: (a) expertise in a specific field/occupation; (b) a working knowledge of the fundamentals of behavioral modification psychology; and (c) the innate personal skills to empower people to recognize and then to solve their own problems. If anyone of these skills is deficient or lacking, particularly, (b) or (c), pursuing a private coaching career isn’t realistic.  Perhaps a consulting, mentoring, or a counseling career would make a better choice.      

 

ENGLISH TUTORING IN ISRAEL TODAY – COMPETING IN A TOUGH JOB MARKET

 

Over the past several decades, the supply of English teaching professionals in Israel has not only caught up with, but has exceeded the demand.  This has resulted in a flood of mostly unemployed English teachers, trying to find jobs in an already over-crowded English tutoring market.  The latter is now strictly a buyer’s market, with no end in sight!         

The underlying causation factors can be summarized as follows: the large number of local teacher training colleges/universities with English departments, pumping  out hundreds of English major & teacher graduates annually; the same institutions offering  one-year English tutor certification programs, designed for older professionals seeking career changes; the steady influx of “Anglos” toting B.A. and M.A. degrees in English education, exacerbated by the sharp downturn in the global economy;  and even the number of presently employed English school teachers seeking additional income, via the tutoring route. Tutors can help for learning Japanese.        

 Consequently, if you want to stay “a cut above the competition”, here are some   points to remember:  

1. Hebrew Language Proficiency – the lower the age of your student target group, the higher the Ivrit level you’ll need.      

 

2. Educational Qualifications – relying on only a B.A. in English education isn’t realistically competitive.  You’re either going to have to beef up your education level to an M.A. and/or obtain instructor certification in perhaps one or more of these specialties – ELS, TOFEL, or SEN .  

 

3. Marketing Strategies – maintain updated CVs, personal references, & business cards. For starters, volunteer your services at local community centers and schools.   Post tutoring flyers on neighborhood bulletin boards, and keep checking the JOBSHUK, JANGLO, ETNI, & similar websites for job opportunities.  

 

4. Knowledge of Local Pay Rates – don’t be caught off guard.  Know in advance what the remuneration standards are in your catchment areas for groups & individuals.  In this regard, be flexible & sharpen your negotiating skills.  You’re going to need them! 

 

5. Technical Expertise/Skills – bonding effectively with younger clients is critical.  This is especially true if their parents are “arm twisting them” into being tutored.  Strengthen your bonding expertise by studying & practicing psychological techniques.  NLP is a good example.         

 

6. Psychometric Readiness  – develop & maintain your own system of written tests.  It’s not uncommon to get insufficient client feedback from apathetic classroom teachers.      

 

7. Reference Materials –   invest in and build up your own personal library.  There’s tons of free material on the “net” you can download & file away.  

 

8. Office Technology – in addition to a PC, owning your own copying & fax machines save time, money, & also increases work efficiency.   

 

9. Work Environment – minimize noise & window space.  Loud colored walls & pictures can also cause distractions.  Position wall clocks behind the student.      

 

10. Creative Entrepreneurship – think of starting your own English tutoring business, wider in scope, with one or more partners’ (each having own specialty & separate network of contacts).  Check out the potential revenues, & don’t forget to have invoices printed.     

 

With that said, focus your attention on yourself rather than on the competition.  Don’t be discouraged, and don’t give up.  Always maintain a positive attitude.  If tutoring English is really your passion- GO FOR IT!